History of Digital Computer

The History of Digital Computers B. RANDELL Computing Laboratory, University of Newcastle upon Tyne This account describes the history of the development of digital computers, from the work of Charles Babbage to the earliest electronic stored program computers, It has been prepared for Volume 3 of â€Å"l’Histoire Generale des Techniques,† and is in the main based on the introductory text written by the author for the book â€Å"The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers† (Springer Verlag, 1973). . Charles Babbage THE first electronic digital computers were completed in the late 1940’s. In most cases their developers were unaware that nearly all the important functional characteristics of these computers had been invented over a hundred years earlier by Charles Babbage. It was in 1821 that the English mathematician Charles Babbage became interested in the possibility of mechanising the computation and printing of mathematical tables.He successfully constructed a small machine, which he called a â€Å"difference engine,† capable of automatically generating successive values of simple algebraic functions by means of the method of finite differences. This encouraged him to plan a full-scale machine, and to seek financial backing from the British government. During the next 12 years both Babbage and the government poured considerable sums of money into the attempt at building his Difference Engine.However the project, which called for the construction of six interlinked adding mechanisms, each capable of adding two multiple-digit decimal numbers, together with an automatic printing mechanism, was considerably beyond the technological capabilities of the era – indeed it has been claimed that the efforts expended on the Difference Engine were more than justified simply by the improvements they generated in mechanical engineering equipment and practice.Although Babbage’s plans for a Difference Engine were somewha t premature, the basic scheme was vindicated when in 1843, inspired by their knowledge of his work, George and Edvard Scheutz successfully demonstrated a working prototype difference engine. A final version of this model was completed 10 years later, with financial assistance from the Swedish government. Several other difference engines ere constructed in the decades that followed, but such machines never achieved the importance of more conventional calculating machines, and when multi-register accounting machines became available in the 1920’s it was found that these could be used essentially as difference engines. However Babbage’s ideas soon progressed far beyond that of a special-purpose calculating machine – in fact almost as soon as he started work on his Difference Engine he became dissatisfied with its limitations.In particular he wished to avoid the need to have the highest order of difference constant, in order to be able to use the machine directly fo r transcendental as well as algebraic functions. In 1834 Babbage started active work on these matters, and on problems such as division and the need to speed up the part of the addition mechanism which dealt with the assimilation of carry digits. He developed several very ingenious methods of carry assimilation, but the time savings so obtainable would have been at the cost of a considerable amount of complex machinery.This led Babbage to realise the advantages of having a single centralised arithmetic mechanism, the â€Å"mill,† separate from the â€Å"figure axes,† i. e. , columns of discs which acted merely as storage locations rather than accumulators. Babbage’s first idea for controlling the sequencing of the various component mechanisms of the engine was to use â€Å"barrels,† i. e. , rotating pegged cylinders of the sort used in musical automata. He first planned to use a set of subsidiary barrels, with over-all control of the machine being specifi ed by a large central barrel with exchangeable pegs.However in June 1836 he took the major step of adopting a punched card mechanism, of the kind found in Jacquard looms, in place of the rather limited and cumbersome central barrel. He did so in the realisation that the â€Å"formulae† which specified the computation that the machine was to perform could therefore be of almost unbounded extent, and that it would be a simple matter to change from the use of one formula to another.Normally formula cards, each specifying an arithmetic operation to be performed, were to be read by the Jacquard mechanism in sequence, but Babbage also envisaged means whereby this sequence could be broken and then recommenced at an earlier or later card in the sequence. Moreover he allowed the choice of the next card which was to be used to be influenced by the partial results that the machine had obtained.These provisions allowed him to claim that computations of indefinite complexity could be perf ormed under the control of comparatively small sets of formula cards. Babbage talked at one time of having a store consisting of no less than 1000 figure axes, each capable of holding a signed 40-digit decimal number, and planned to provide for reading numbers from cards into the store, and for punching or printing the values of numbers held in the store.The movement of numbers between the mill and the store was to be controlled by a sequence of â€Å"variable cards,† each specifying which particular figure axis was involved. Therefore an arithmetic operation whose operands were to be obtained from the store and whose result was to be returned to the store would be specified by an operation card and several variable cards. He apparently intended these different kinds of control cards to be in separate sequences, read by separate Jacquard mechanisms.Thus in the space of perhaps 3 years Babbage had arrived at the concept of a general purpose digital computer consisting of a sto re, arithmetic unit, punched card input and output, and a card-controlled sequencing mechanism that provided iteration and conditional branching. Moreover although he continued to regard the machine, which he later came to call the Analytical Engine, as being principally for the construction of mathematical tables, he had a very clear grasp of the conceptual advances he had made.Basing his claim on the unbounded number of operation and variable cards that could be used to control the machine, the ease with which complicated conditional branches could be built from a sequence of simple ones, and the fact that automatic input and output, and multiple precision arithmetic, were provided, he stated that â€Å". . . it appears that the whole of the conditions which enable a finite machine to make calculations of unlimited extent are fulfilled in the Analytical Engine . . . . I have converted the infinity of space, which was required by the conditions of the problem, into the infinity of time. Because separate, but associated, sequences of cards were needed to control the Analytical Engine the concept of a program as we know it now does not appear very c1early in contemporary descriptions of the machine. However there is evidence that Babbage had realised the fact that the information punched on the cards which controlled the engine could itself have been manipulated by an automatic machine-for example he suggested the possibility of the Analytical Engine itself being used to assist in the preparation of lengthy sequences of control cards.Indeed in the description of the use of the Analytical Engine written by Lady Lovelace, in collaboration with Babbage, there are passages which would appear to indicate that it had been realised that an Analytical Engine was fully capable of manipulating symbolic as well as arithmetical quantities. Probably Babbage himself realised that the complete Analytical Engine was impractical to build, but he spent much of the rest of his l ife designing and redesigning mechanisms for the machine.The realisation of his dream had to await the development of a totally new technology, and an era when the considerable finances and facilities required for an automatic computer would be made available, the need at last being widely enough appreciated. He was a century ahead of his time, for as one of the pioneers of the modern electronic digital computer has written: â€Å"Babbage was moving in a world of logical design and system architecture, and was familiar with and had solutions for problems that were not to be discussed in the literature for another 100 years. †He died in 1871, leaving an immense collection of engineering drawings and documents, but merely a small portion of the Analytical Engine, consisting of an addition and a printing mechanism, whose assembly was completed by his son, Henry Babbage. This machine and Babbage’s engineering drawings are now in the Science Museum, London. 2. Babbageâ€⠄¢s direct successors Some years’ after Babbage’s death his son Henry Babbage recommenced work on the construction of a mechanical calculating machine, basing his efforts on the designs his father had made for the Mill of the Analytical Engine.This work was started in 1888 and carried on very intermittently. It was completed only in about 1910 when the Mill, which incorporated a printing mechanism, was demonstrated at a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society. By this date however the work of a little-known successor to Charles Babbage, an Irish accountant named Percy Ludgate, was already well advanced. Ludgate started work in 1903 at the age of 20 on an entirely novel scheme for performing arithmetic on decimal numbers.Decimal digits were to be represented by the lateral position of a sliding metal rod, rather than the angular position of a geared disc. The basic operation provided was multiplication, which used a complicated mechanism for calculating the two-digit products resulting from multiplying pairs of decimal digits. together. The scheme involved first transforming the digits into a form of logarithm, adding the logarithms together, and then converting the result back into a two-digit sum.This scheme is quite unlike any known to have been used in earlier mechanical calculators, or for that matter since, although there had been several calculating machines constructed that used built-in multiplication tables to obtain two-digit products – the earliest known of these was that invented by Bollee in 1887. It is in fact difficult to see any advantages to Ludgate’s logarithmic scheme, although his form of number representation is reminiscent of that used in various mechanical calculating devices in the following decades.So striking are the differences between Ludgate’s and Babbage’s ideas for mechanical arithmetic that there is no reason to dispute Ludgate’s statement that he did not learn of Babbageâ€℠¢s prior work until the later stages of his own. It seems likely that Babbage was the eventual inspiration for Ludgate to investigate the provision of a sequence control mechanism. Here he made an advance over the rather awkward system that Babbage had planned, involving separate sets of operation and variable cards.Instead his machine was to have been controlled by a single perforated paper tape, each row of which represented an instruction consisting of an operation code and four address fields. Control transfers simply involved moving the tape the appropriate number of rows forwards or backwards. Moreover he also envisaged the provision of what we would now call subroutines, represented by sequences of perforations around the circumference of special cylinders-one such cylinder was to be provided The Institute of Mathematics and its Applications 2 for division.The machine was also to be controllable from a keyboard, a byproduct of whose operation would be a perforated tape which could then be used to enable the sequence of manually controlled operations to be repeated automatically. Ludgate estimated that his Analytical Machine would be capable of multiplying two twenty-digit numbers in about 10 seconds, and that, in considerable contrast to Babbage’s Analytical Engine, it would be portable. However there is no evidence that he ever tried to construct the machine, which he apparently worked on alone, in his spare time.He died in 1922, and even if at this time his plans for the Analytical Machine still existed there is now no trace of them, and our knowledge of the machine depends almost entirely on the one description of it that he published. The next person who is known to have followed in the footsteps of Babbage and to have worked on the problems of designing an analytical engine was Leonardo Torres y Quevedo. Torres was born in the province of Santander in Spain in 1852.Although qualified as a civil engineer he devoted his career to scientific re search, and in particular to the design and construction of an astonishing variety of calculating devices and automata. He gained great renown, particularly in France and in Spain, where he became President of the Academy of Sciences of Madrid, and where following his death in 1936 an institute for scientific research was named after him. Torres first worked on analog calculating devices, including equation solvers and integrators.In the early 1900’s he built various radio-controlled devices, including a torpedo and a boat which, according to the number of pulses it received, could select between various rudder positions and speeds, and cause a flag to be run up and down a mast. In 1911 he made and successfully demonstrated the first of two chess-playing automata for the end game of king and rook against king. The machine was fully automatic, with electrical sensing of the positions of the pieces on the board and a mechanical arm to move its own pieces. The second machine was built in 1922, and used magnets underneath the board to move the pieces. ) In all this work, he was deliberately exploiting the new facilities that electromechanical techniques offered, and challenging accepted ideas as to the limitations of machines. He picked on Babbage’s Analytical Engine as an important and interesting technical challenge, and in 1914 published a paper incorporating detailed schematic designs for a suitable set of electro-mechanical components.These included devices for storing, comparing and multiplying numbers, and were accompanied by a discussion of what is now called floating point number representation. He demonstrated the use of the devices in a design for a special-purpose program-controlled calculator. The program was to be represented by areas of conductive material placed on the surface of a rotating drum, and incorporated a means for specifying conditional branching. Torres clearly never intended to construct a machine to his design, but 6 yea rs later he built, and successfully demonstrated, a typewriter-controlled calculating machine primarily to demonstrate that an electromechanical analytical engine was completely feasible. He in fact never did build an analytical engine, although he designed, and in many cases built, various other digital devices including two more calculating machines, an automatic weighing machine, and a machine for playing a game somewhat like the game of Nim. However there seems little reason to doubt that, should the need have been sufficiently pressing, Torres would indeed have built a complete analytical engine.In the event, it was not until the 1939-1945 war that the desirability of largescale fully automatic calculating machines became so clear that the necessary environment was created for Babbage’s concept to become a reality. Before this occurred there is known to have been at least one further effort at designing an analytical engine. This was by a Frenchman, Louis Couffignal, who was motivated mainly by a desire to reduce the incidence of errors in numerical computations.He was familiar with the work of Babbage and Torres y Quevedo but, in contrast to their designs, proposed to use binary number representation. The binary digits of stored numbers were to be represented by the lateral position of a set of parallel bars controlled by electro-magnets. The various arithmetic operations were to be performed by relay networks, the whole machine being controlled by perforated tapes. Couffignal apparently had every intention of building this machine, in association with the Logabax Company, but presumably because of the war never did so.However after the war he was in charge of an electronic computer project for the Institut Blaise Pascal, the design study and construction of the machine being in the hands of the Logabax Company. With Couffignal’s pre-war plans, the line of direct succession to Babbage’s Analytical Engine seems to have come to an end. Most of the wartime computer projects were apparently carried out in ignorance of the extent to which many of the problems that had to be dealt with had been tackled by Babbage over a century earlier. However in some cases there is clear evidence that nowledge of Babbage’s work was an influence on the wartime pioneers, in particular Howard Aiken, originator of the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, and William Phillips, an early proponent of binary calculation, and various other influential people, including Vannevar Bush and L. J. Comrie, were also well aware of his dream. 3. The contribution of the punched card industry An initially quite separate thread of activity leading to the development of the modern computer originated with the invention of the punched card tabulating system.The capabilities of Herman Hollerith’s equipment, first used on a large scale for the 1890 US National Census, were soon extended considerably. The original equipment allowed cards to hold binary information representing the answers to a Census questionnaire. These cards could be tabulated, one by one, using a machine which sensed the presence of holes in the card electrically and could be wired to count the number of cards processed in which particular holes or combinations of holes had been punched. A device could be attached to such a tabulator which assisted the manual sorting of cards into a number of separate sequences.Within 10 years automatic card handling mechanisms, which greatly increased the speed of machine operation, and addition units, which enabled card tabulators to sum decimal numbers punched on cards, had been provided. The system soon came into widespread use in the accounting departments of various commercial organisations, as well as being used for statistical tabulations in many countries of the world. After the 1900 US Census relations between Hollerith and the Census Bureau deteriorated, and the Bureau began to manufacture its own equ ipment for use in the 1910 Census.The person in charge of this work was James Powers who circumvented Hollerith’s patents by producing a mechanical card reading apparatus. He retained the patent rights to his inventions and formed his own company which eventually merged with Remington Rand in 1927. In 1911 Hollerith sold his own company, the Tabulating Machine Company, which he had formed in 1896, and it was shortly afterwards merged with two other companies to form the Computing-TabulatingRecording Company. This company which was under the direction of Thomas J.Watson from 1914 became the International Business Machines Corporation in 1924. During the 1920’s and 1930’s punched card systems developed steadily, aided no doubt by the stimulus of competition, not only in the USA but also in Britain, where the Hollerith and Powers-based systems continued to be marketed under the names of their original inventors, while in France a third manufacturer, Compagnie Machi nes Bull, was also active. Unfortunately the people involved in this work did not in general publish technical papers and their work has received little public recognition.Thus full appreciation of the contribution of IBM development engineers, such as J. W. Bryce, one of the most prolific inventors of his era, will probably have to await an analysis of the patent literature. One inventor whose work has, however, been documented is Gustav Tauschek, a self-taught Viennese engineer, with more than 200 patents in the computing field to his credit. While working for Rheinische Metallund Maschinenfabrik he designed and built a punched card electromechanical accounting machine.His other patents, many of which were filed whilst he was under contract to IBM during the 1930’s, also included a â€Å"reading-writing-calculating machine† which used photocells to compare printed input characters with templates held on photographic film, a number storage device using magnetised stee l plates, and an electromechanical accounting machine designed for use in small banks capable of storing the records of up to 10 000 accounts. By the 1930’s printing tabulators were available which worked at approximately 100 cards per minute, and there were sorters which worked at 400 cards per minute.The machines were controlled by fairly intricate plugboards, but arithmetic and logical computations involving sequences of operations of any great complexity were carried out by repeated processing of sets of cards, under the direction of operators. Various attempts were made to supplement the functional capabilities of punched card systems by linking together otherwise independent machines. One such system, the Synchro-Madas machine, incorporated a typewriter/accounting machine, an automatic calculating machine and an automatic card punch.These were linked together so that a single action by the operator sitting at the typewriter/accounting machine would control several opera tions on the different machines. One other system involving a set of inter-linked card machines, although very different in concept and scale from the Synchro-Madas machine, is worth mentioning. This is the Remote-control Accounting system which was experimented with in a Pittsburgh department store, also in the mid-1930’s. The system involved 250 terminals connected by telephone lines to 20 Powers card punch/tabulators and 15 on-line typewriters.The terminals transmitted data from punched merchandise tags which were used to produce punched sales record cards, later used for customer billing. The typewriter terminals were used for credit authorisation purposes. The intended peak transaction rate was 9000 per hour. Even during the 1920’s punched card systems were used not only for accounting and the compilation of statistics, but also for complex statistical calculations. However the first important scientific application of punched card systems was made by L.J. Comrie in 1929. Comrie was Superintendent of HM Nautical Almanac Office until 1936, and then founded the Scientific Computing Service. He made a speciality of putting commercial computing machinery to scientific use, and introduced Hollerith equipment to the Nautical Almanac Office. His calculations of the future positions of the Moon, which involved the punching of half a million cards, stimulated many other scientists to exploit the possibilities of punched card systems. One such scientist was Wallace J.Eckert, an astronomer at Columbia University, which already had been donated machines for a Statistical Laboratory by IBM in 1929, including the â€Å"Statistical Calculator,† a specially developed tabulator which was the forerunner of the IBM Type 600 series of multiplying punches, and of the mechanisms used in the Harvard Mark I machine. With assistance from IBM in 1934 Eckert set up a scientific computing laboratory in the Columbia Astronomy Department, a laboratory which was la ter to become the Thomas J.Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau. In order to facilitate the use of his punched card equipment Eckert developed a centralised control mechanism, linked to a numerical tabulator, a summary punch and a multiplying punch, so that a short cycle of different operations could be performed at high speed. The control mechanism which was based on a stepping switch enabled many calculations, even some solutions 4 The Institute of Mathematics and its Applications of differential equations, to be performed completely automatically.The potential of a system of inter-connected punched card machines, controlled by a fully general-purpose sequencing mechanism, and the essential similarity of such a system to Babbage’s plans for an Analytical Engine, were discussed in an article published by Vannevar Bush in 1936. Bush was at this time already renowned for his work on the first differential analyser, and during the war held the influential position of Director o f the US Office of Scientific Research and Development.In fact an attempt was made to build such a system of inter-connected punched card machines at the Institut fur Praktische Mathematik of the Technische Hochschule, Darmstadt, in Germany during the war. The plans called for the inter-connection of a standard Hollerith multiplier and tabulators, and specially constructed divider and function generators, using a punched tape sequence control mechanism. Work was abandoned on the project following a destructive air raid in September 1944. However, by this stage, in the United States much more ambitious efforts were being made to apply the expertise of punched card equipment designers.The efforts originated in 1937 with a proposal by Howard Aiken of Harvard University that a large-scale scientific calculator be constructed by inter-connecting a set of punched card machines via a master control panel. This would be plugged so as to govern the transmission of numerical operands and the sequencing of arithmetic operations. Through Dr. Shapley, director of the Harvard College Observatory, Aiken became acquainted with Wallace Eckert’s punched card installation at Columbia University.These contacts helped Aiken to persuade IBM to undertake the task of developing and building a machine to his basic design. For IBM, J. W. Bryce assigned C. D. Lake, F. E. Hamilton and B. M. Durfee to the task. Aiken later acknowledged these three engineers as co-inventors of the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or Harvard Mark I as it became known. The machine was built at the IBM development laboratories at Endicott and was demonstrated there in January 1943 before being shipped to Harvard, where it became operational in May 1944.In August of that year IBM, in the person of Thomas J. Watson, donated the machine to Harvard where it was used initially for classified work for the US Navy. The design of the Harvard Mark I followed the original proposals by Aiken fairly close ly, but it was built using a large number of the major components used in the various types of punched card machines then manufactured, rather than from a set of complete machines themselves. It incorporated 72 â€Å"storage counters† each of which served as both a storage location, and as a complete adding and subtracting machine.Each counter consisted of 24 electromechanical counter wheels and could store a signed 23digit decimal number. A special multiply/divide unit, and units for obtaining the value of previously computed functions held on perforated tape, and for performing interpolation, were provided together with input/output equipment such as card readers and punches, and typewriters. The various mechanisms and counter wheels were all driven and synchronised by a single gearconnected mechanical system extending along nearly the entire length of the calculator.A main sequence control mechanism incorporating a punched tape reader governed the operation of the machine. Each horizontal row on the tape had space for three groups of eight holes, known as the A, B and C groups. Together these specified a single instruction of the form â€Å"Take the number out of unit A, deliver it to unit B, and start operation C. † Somewhat surprisingly, in view of Aiken’s knowledge of Babbage’s work and writings, no provision was made originally for conditional branching.As it was, such provision was only made later when a subsidiary sequence control mechanism was built at Harvard and incorporated into the machine. The Harvard Mark I was a massive machine over 50 feet long, built on a lavish scale. Being largely mechanical its speed was somewhat limited – for example multiplication took 6 seconds – but it continued in active use at Harvard until 1959. It has an important place in the history of computers although the long-held belief that it was the world’s first operational programcontrolled computer was proved to be fals e, once the details of Zuse’s wartime work in Germany became known.It marked a major step by IBM towards full involvement in the design of general-purpose computers and, with ENIAC and the Bell Telephone Laboratories Series, represents the starting point of American computer developments. After completion of the Mark I, Aiken and IBM pursued independent paths. Aiken, still distrustful of the reliability of electronic components, moved to electromagnetic relays for the construction of the Harvard Mark II, another paper-tape-sequenced calculator.This machine had an internal store which could hold about 100 dccimal floating point numbers. One of the most interesting aspects of the machine was that it could be operated either as a single computer or as two separate ones. The complete system incorporated four of each type of input/output device, namely sequence tape readers, data tape readers and punches, numerical function tape readers and output printers. It also had multiple ar ithmetic facilities, including two adders and four multipliers (taking 0. 7 second) which could all be used simultaneously.Detailed design of the machine, which was intended for the US Naval Proving Ground, Dahlgren, Virginia, began at Harvard early in 1945, and the machine was completed in 1947. Afterwards Aiken and his colleagues went on to design the Mark III, an electronic computer with magnetic drum storage, completed in 1950, and the Mark IV, which incorporated 200 magnetic core shift registers, completed in 1952. The designers of IBM’s next machine, the Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator, included two of the Harvard Mark I’s design team, namely C. D. Lake and B. M.Durfee, but the machine in fact had more in common with IBM’s earlier calculating punches than with the Mark I; like the punches it was controlled using plugboard-specified sequencing, rather than by a sequence control tape of essentially unlimited length. Its relay construction resulted in its basic operation speed being considerably faster than the Mark I, although it lacked the Mark I’s ease and flexibility of programming, demanding instead the kind of detailed design of parallel subsequencing that one sees nowadays at the microprogramming level of some computers.Great stress was raid by the designers on the efficient use of punched card input/output, and it was claimed that in many cases, where other machines’ internal storage capacity proved inadequate, the IBM relay calculators could outperform even the contemporary electronic computers. Several machines were built, the first of which was delivered in December 1944 to the Aberdeen Proving Ground, and two were installed at the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory that IBM had set up at Columbia University under the directorship of Wallace Eckert.The Relay Calculator was followed by the giant IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator, a machine which was very much in the tradition of the Mark I. Wal lace Eckert was responsible for the logical organisation of the machine, with Frank Hamilton being the chief engineer on the project. The design was a compromise between Eckert’s wish, for performance reasons, to use electronic components to the full, and Hamilton’s preference for electro-mechanical relays, on grounds of reliability. As a result vacuum tubes were used for the arithmetic unit, the control circuitry, and the 8 word high-speed store, relays being used elsewhere.In addition to the 8 word store there was a 150 word random access electro-magnetic store and storage for 20000 numbers in the form of punched tapes. Numbers would be read from the electro-magnetic store, or in sequence from the punched tape store, at the speed of the multiplier, i. e. , every 20 milliseconds. The design was started in 1945, and the machine was built in great secrecy at Endicott, before being moved to New York City, where it was publicly unveiled at an elaborate dedication ceremony in January 1948. The most important aspect of the SSEC, credited to R. R.Seeber, was that it could perform arithmetic on, and then execute, stored instructions – it was almost certainly the first operational machine with these capabilities. This led to IBM obtaining some very important patents, but the machine as a whole was soon regarded as somewhat anachronistic and was dismantled in 1952. It had however provided IBM with some valuable experience – for example, Hamilton and some of his engineering colleagues went on to design the highly successful IBM 650, and many of the SSEC programmers later became members of the IBM 701 programming group.Finally, mention should be made of one other machine manufactured by IBM which can be classed as a precursor to the modern electronic digital computer. This was the Card Programmed Calculator, a machine which along with its predecessors now tends to be overshadowed by the SSEC. Like the Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator, the C PC can trace its origins to the IBM 600 series of multiplying punches. In 1946 IBM announced the Type 603, the first production electronic calculator. The IBM 603, which incorporated 300 valves, was developed from an experimental multiplier designed at Endicott under the direction of R.L. Palmer in 1942. One hundred machines were sold, and then IBM replaced it with the Type 604, a plugboardcontrolled electronic calculator, which provided conditional branching but, lacking backward jumps, no means of constructing program loops. Deliveries of the 604, which incorporated over 1400 valves, started in 1948 and within the next 10 years over 5000 were installed. In 1948 a 604 was coupled to a type 402 accounting machine by Northrop Aircraft Company, in order to provide the 604 with increased capacity and with printing facilities. This idea was taken up by IBM, and formed the basis of the CPC.Nearly 700 CPC’s were built, and this machine played a vital role in providing computing pow er to many installations in the USA until stored program electronic computers became commercially available on a reasonable scale. In the years that followed the introduction of the CPC, IBM continued to develop its range of electronic calculators and, starting in 1952 with the IBM 701, an electronic computer in the tradition of von Neumann’s IAS machine, took its first steps towards achieving its present dominant position amongst electronic computer manufacturers. . Konrad Zuse Konrad Zuse started to work on the development of mechanical aids to calculation as early as 1934, at the age of 24. He was studying civil engineering at the Technische Hochschule, Berlin-Charlottenburg, and sought some means of relief from the tedious calculations that had to be performed. His first idea had been to design special forms to facilitate ordinary manual calculation, but then he decided to try to mechanise the operation.Continuing to use the special layouts that he had designed for his fo rms, he investigated representing numerical data by means of perforations, and the use of a hand-held sensing device which could communicate the data over an electrical cable to an automatic calculating machine. The idea then arose of using a mechanical register rather than perforated cards, and, realising that the layout was irrelevant, Zuse started to develop a general purpose mechanical store, whose locations were addressed numerically.By 1936 he had the basic design of a floating point binary computer, controlled by a program tape consisting of a sequence of instructions, each of which specified an operation code, two operand addresses and a result address. Thus, apparently quite independently of earlier work by Babbage and his successors on analytical engines, Zuse had very quickly reached the point of having a design for a general-purpose program-controlled computer, although the idea of conditional branching was lacking.More importantly, even though the various basic The Inst itute of Mathematics and its Applications 6 ideas that his design incorporated had, it now turns out, been thought of earlier (i. e. , binary mechanical arithmetic (Leibniz), program control (Babbage), instruction formats with numerical storage addresses (Ludgate) and floating point number representations (Torres y Quevedo)), Zuse’s great achievement was to turn these ideas into reality. Zuse had considerable trouble finding sponsors willing to finance the building of his machine.Despite his financial difficulties his first machine, the Z1, which was of entirely mechanical construction was completed in 1938, but it proved unreliable in operation. He then started to construct a second, fixed-point binary, machine which incorporated the 16 word mechanical binary store of the Z1, but was otherwise built from second-hand telephone relays. Although the Z2 computer was completed it was inadequate for any practical use. However by this time a colleague, Helmut Schreyer, was already working with Zuse on the problem of producing an electronic version of the Z1.This led to the construction of a small 10 place binary arithmetic unit, with approximately 100 valves, but proposals that Schreyer and Zuse made to the German government for a 1500 valve electronic computer were rejected and the work was discontinued in 1942. Earlier, in 1939, Zuse was called up for military service, but managed to get released after about a year, and for the first time received significant government backing for his plans. This enabled him to build the Z3 computer, a binary machine with a 64 word store, all built out of telephone relays.This computer, since it was operational in 1941, is believed to have been the world’s first general-purpose program-controlled computer. It incorporated units for addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and square root, using a floating point number representation with a sign bit, a 7-bit exponent and a 14-bit mantissa. Input was via a manu al keyboard and output via a set of lights, in each case with automatic binary/decimal conversion, and the machine was controlled by a perforated tape carrying single address instructions, i. . , instructions specifying one operand, and an operation. In addition to his series of general-purpose computers, Zuse built two special-purpose computers, both used for calculations concerning aircraft wing profiles. The first of these was in use for 2 years at the Henschel Aircraft Works, before being destroyed through war damage. Both computers had fixed programs, wired on to rotary switches, and performed calculations involving addition, subtraction and multiplication by constant factors.Soon after completion of the Z3, the design of an improved version, the Z4, was started. This was mainly electro-mechanical but incorporated a purely mechanical binary store similar to that which had been used for the Zl and Z2 machines. The partially completed Z4 was the only one of Zuse’s machines to survive the war – indeed it eventually was completed and gave years of successful service at the Technische Hochschule, Zurich. The Z4 was inspected shortly after the war by R. C. Lyndon, whose report on the machine for the US Office f Naval Research was published in 1947. At this stage the Z4 had only manual input and output, and no means of conditional branching, although it was planned to add four tape readers and two tape punches, and facilities for repeating programs and for choosing between alternate subprograms. The machine was housed in the cellar of a farmhouse in the little village of Hopferau in Bavaria, and was not fully operational, but the mechanical store and various arithmetic operations and their automatic sequencing were successfully demonstrated to Lyndon.His report, although it gives a fairly full description of the Z4 (with the exception of the mechanical store, which he was not allowed to examine in detail), made virtually no mention of Zuse’s earlier work. Indeed it was many years before any other English language accounts of Zuse’s work were published, and Zuse’s rightful place in the chronology of computer development became at all widely appreciated. 5. Bell Telephone Laboratories The potentialities of telephone equipment for the construction of digital calculation devices were not realised for many years.The first automatic telephone exchange, which used the step-by-step or Strowger switch, was installed in 1892. As early as 1906 Molina devised a system for translating the pulses representing the dialled decimal digits into a more convenient number system. Exchanges based mainly on the use of electromechanical relays started to come into use at the turn of the century, the earliest successful centralised automatic exchanges dating from about 1914. However, from the late 1920’s various different calculating devices were developed using telephone equipment.Perhaps the most spectacular of these was the automatic totalisator. Totalisator, or â€Å"pari-mutuel,† betting became legal on British race courses in July 1929. Development of fully automatic totalisators consisting of ticket-issuing machines situated in various parts of the race course, a central calculating apparatus, and display boards which indicated the number and total value of bets made on each horse, and on the race as a whole, was already well under way.There were several rival systems. The Hamilton Totalisator and the totalisator produced by the British Automatic Totalisator Company were fully electrical, both as regards the calculations performed and the operation of the display boards, whereas the Lightning Totalisator used electrical impulses from remote ticket machines only to release steel balls which fell through tubes and actuated a mechanical adding apparatus.In January 1930 the Racecourse Betting Control Board demonstrated at Thirsk Racecourse a new standard electric totalisator supplied by Bri tish Thompson Houston, built from Strowger switches. This machine which was transportable from racecourse to racecourse could accumulate bets on up to six horses at a maximum rate of 12 000 per minute. The machine had in fact been designed in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1928 but the first complete machine to be used in the USA was installed by the American Totalisator Company at Arlington Park nly in 1933. In succeeding years much more sophisticated totalisators, involving hundreds of remote ticket-issuing machines, were used at racecourses all over USA, and it was not until many years after the advent of the electronic computer that one was used as a replacement for the central calculating apparatus of the totalisator. One early little-known design for a calculating machine to be built from telephone relays was that of Bernard Weiner in Czechoslovakia in 1923.Weiner, in association with the Vitkovice Iron Works, went on during the 1930’s to design a more powerful automatic calcu lator. He did not survive the war, and nothing is known about the results of this work. Other early work was done by Nicoladze who in 1928 designed a multiplier based on the principle of Genaille’s rods. (These were a non-mechanical aid to multiplication which enabled a person to read off the product of a multidigit number by a single digit number. Four years later Hamann described not only various different styles of relay-based multiplier, but also a device for solving sets of simultaneous linear equations, and shortly afterwards Weygandt demonstrated a prototype determinant evaluator, capable of dealing with 3 x 3 determinants. Undoubtedly in the years that followed many other digital calculating devices were developed based on telephone relay equipment, particularly during the war for such military applications as ballistics calculations and cryptanalysis – indeed, as mentioned earlier, some of Zuse’s machines made extensive use of telephone relays.It is per haps a little surprising that it was not until 1937 that Bell Telephone Laboratories investigated the design of calculating devices, although from about 1925 the possibility of using relay circuit techniques for such purposes was well accepted there. However, in 1937 George Stibitz started to experiment with relays, and drew up circuit designs for addition, multiplication and division. At first he concentrated on binary arithmetic, together with automatic decimal-binary and binarydecimal conversion, but later turned his attention to a binary-coded decimal number representation.The project became an official one when, prompted by T. C. Fry, Stibitz started to design a calculator capable of multiplying and dividing complex numbers, which was intended to fill a very practical need, namely to facilitate the solution of problems in the design of filter networks, and so started the very important Bell Telephone Laboratories Series of Relay Computers. In November 1938, S. B. Williams took over responsibility for the machine’s development and together with Stibitz refined the design of the calculator, whose construction was started in April and completed in October of 1939.The calculator, which became known as the â€Å"Complex Number Computer† (often shortened to â€Å"Complex Computer,† and as other calculators were built, the â€Å"Model I†), began routine operation in January 1940. Within a short time it was modified so as to provide facilities for the addition and subtraction of complex numbers, and was provided with a second, and then a third, teletype control, situated in remote locations. It remained in daily use at Bell Laboratories until 1949.The Complex Computer was publicly demonstrated for the first time in September 1940 by being operated in its New York City location from a teletypewriter installed in Hanover, New Hampshire, on the occasion of a meeting of the American Mathematical Society, a demonstration that both John Mauc hly and Norbert Wiener attended. During 1939 and 1940 Stibitz started work on the idea of automatic sequencing and on the use of error-detecting codes. These ideas were not pursued actively until, a year or so later, the onset of the war rovided a strong stimulus and the necessary financial climate. They then formed the basis of the second of the Bell Laboratories relay calculators, the â€Å"Relay Interpolator. † This was a special-purpose tape-controlled device, with selfchecking arithmetic, designed to solve fire control problems, and was built for the National Defense Research Council, to which Stibitz had been lent by Bell Laboratories. Although mainly used for interpolation it was also used for a few problems in harmonic analysis, calculation of roots of polynomials and solution of differential equations.It became operational in September 1943, and after the war it was handed over to the US Naval Research Laboratory, where it was in use until 1961. The Model III relay c alculator, the â€Å"Ballistic Computer,† work on which started in 1942, was a much more complete realisation of Stibitz’s early plans for an automatic computer, and although once again intended for fire control problems was much more versatile than the Model II. It was tape-controlled, and had a tenregister store, a built-in multiplier (designed by E. L.Vibbard), and devices for performing automatic look-up of tables held on perforated paper tape. Perhaps most impressive was the fact that the machine was 100 per cent. self-checked. The machine was completed in June 1944, and remained in use until 1958. The Model IV relay calculator was little different from the Model III, and the series culminated in the Model V, a truly general-purpose program-controlled computer, complete with convenient conditional branching facilities. (The final member of the series, Model VI, was essentially just a simplified version of the Model V. Two copies of the Model V were built, the firs t being delivered in 1946 to the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics at Langley Field, Virginia, and the second in 1947 to the Ballistics Research Laboratory at Aberdeen, Maryland. With its multiple computing units, the Model V, which used floating point arithmetic, was what we would now call a multiprocessing system, and its â€Å"problem tapes† were the forerunners of the early simple batch-processing operating systems. Each of the two computing units comprising a complete system contained 15 storage registers.A single register could hold a floating point number consisting of a sign, a seven-decimal digit mantissa and a two-digit exponent. Decimal digits were stored in a bi-quinary form, using seven relays, and each register used a total of 62 relays. Each unit had independent provision for the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and for 8 The Institute of Mathematics and its Applications taking the square root of floating point numbers, and for printi ng or punching its results.In addition a large set of tape readers, intended for tapes of input data, tabulated functions and programs, and for the problem tapes which controlled the running of series of separate programs, were shared by the two computer units. These units normally functioned as independent computers, but for large problems would be arranged to work cooperatively. Although somewhat slow in execution, the Model V set new standards for reliability, versatility and ease of switching from one task to another, and in so doing must surely have had an important influence on the designers of the earliest round of general-purpose electronic computers.In later years, quite a number of relay calculators were constructed, in both the USA and Europe, even after the first stored program electronic computers became operational, but the importance of their role in the history of computers hardly matches that of the Bell Laboratories Model V and its contemporaries. 6. The advent of electronic computers The earliest known electronic digital circuit, a â€Å"trigger relay,† which involved a pair of valves in a circuit with two stable states and was an early form of flip-flop, was described by Eccles and Jordan in 1919.The next development that we know of was the use by WynnWilliams at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, of thyratrons in counting circuits including, in 1932, a â€Å"scale-of-two† (binary) counter. By the end of the decade quite a few papers had been published on electronic counters intended for counting impulses from GeigerMuller tubes used in nuclear physics experiments. WynnWilliams’ work had a direct influence on the ideas of William Phillips, who apparently in 1935 attempted to patent a binary electronic computing machine.He built a mechanical model, which still exists, of the intended electronic multiplication unit but no other details are presently known of his planned machine. The first known attempt to build an elect ronic digital calculating machine was begun by John V. Atanasoff in the mid-1930’s at Iowa State College where there had been an active interest in statistical applications using punched card equipment since the early 1920’s. As an applied mathematician Atanasoff had many problems requiring generalisations of existing methods of approximating solutions of linear operational equations.He first explored the use of analog techniques and with Lynn Hannum, one of his graduate students, developed the â€Å"Laplaciometer,† a device for solving Laplace’s equation in two dimensions with various boundary conditions. By 1935 the realisation of the sharp limitations of analog computing forced Atanasoff to digital methods. The disadvantages of mechanical techniques and his knowledge of electronics and of the work of Eccles and Jordan then led him to consider an electronic approach.He soon found that in these circumstances a base two number system would have great adva ntages. In 19361937 Atanasoff abandoned the Eccles-Jordan approach and conceived a system employing memory and logic circuits, whose details were worked out in 1938. He received a grant from Iowa State in 1939, and was joined by Clifford E. Berry. With Berry’s assistance a prototype computing element was built and operating by the autumn of that year. They then undertook the design and construction of a large machine intended for the solution of up to 30 simultaneous linear equations.At the heart of the machine there was a pair of rotating cylinders around the surface of which a set of small electrical condensers was placed. Each condenser could, by the direction of its charge, represent a binary digit; although the charge would leak away slowly, it was arranged that as the cylinders rotated the charge on each condenser was detected and reinforced at 1 second time intervals so that information could be stored for as long as required.The condensers were arranged so as to provi de two sets of 30 binary words, each consisting of 50 bits, the condensers corresponding to a single word being arranged in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinders. The results of intermediate steps of a computation were to be punched in binary form on cards, for later re-input to the machine. In order that card punching and reading should be fast enough to keep pace with the computation, special devices were designed that made and detected holes in cards by means of electrical sparks.Ordinary input and output was to be via conventional punched cards, with the machine providing automatic binary/decimal conversions. The machine, with binary addition, subtraction and shifting as its basic arithmetic facilities, was designed to solve sets of simultaneous linear equations by the method of successive elimination of unknowns. The electronic part of the computer was operational but the binary card reader was still unreliable when in 1942 Atanasoff and Bcrry left Iowa State for w artime jobs, so that the machine was abandoned, never having seen actual use.In the late 1930’s and early 1940’s several groups started to investigate the use of digital electronic circuits as replacements for mechanical or electro-mechanical calculating devices, including several of the American business machine manufacturers such as IBM, whose work was described briefly above. The earliest known efforts at applying electronics to a general-purpose program-controlled computer were those undertaken by Schreyer and Zuse, also mentioned earlier.The next development which should be mentioned is the still classified series of electronic cryptanalytic machines that were designed and built in Britain during the war. The machines that are of particular interest, with respect to the development of electronic computers are the Colossi, the first of which was operational in late 1943, while by the end of the war ten had been installed. Each Colossus incorporated approximately 20 00 valves, and processed a punched data tape that was read at a speed of 5000 characters per second.Preset patterns that were to be compared against the input data were generated from stored component patterns. These components were stored in ring registers made of thyratrons and could be manually set by plug-in pins. The Colossi were developed by a team led by M. H. A. Newman. Alan Turing, who had been one of the main people involved in the design of an electro-mechanical predecessor to the Colossi, was apparently not directly associated with the new design, but with others provided the requirements that the machines were to satisfy.The comparative lack of technical details about the design of these machines makes it unreasonable to attempt more than a preliminary, and somewhat hesitant, assessment of the Colossi with respect to the modern digital computer. It would appear that the arithmetical, as opposed to logical, capabilities were minimal, involving only counting rather than g eneral addition or other operations. They did, however, have a certain amount of electronic storage. Although fully automatic, even to the extent of producing printed output, they were very much special-purpose machines, but ithin their field of specialisation the facilities provided by plug-boards and banks of switches afforded a considerable degree of flexibility; in fact several of the people involved in the project have since characterised the machines as being â€Å"program-controlled. † Their importance as cryptanalytic machines, which must have been immense, can only be inferred from the number of machines that were made and the honours bestowed on various members of the team after the end of the war; however, their importance with respect to the development of computers was twofold.They demonstrated the practicality of largescale electronic digital equipment, just as ENIAC did, on an even grander scale, approximately 2 years later. Furthermore, they were also a major source of the designers of some of the first post-war British computers, namely the Manchester machine, the MOSAIC, and the ACE at the National Physical Laboratory. Fascinating though they are, none of the efforts described so far comes near to matching the importance of the work at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, which led to the design of first the ENIAC and then the EDVAC computers.By 1942 the Moore School had, because of pressures of war, become closely associated with the Ballistic Research Laboratory of the US Army Ordnance Department, and the Moore School’s differential analyser was being used to supplement the work of the one at the Ballistic Research Laboratory on the production of ballistic tables. (The two analysers were identical and had been patterned on the original differential analyser invented by Vannevar Bush in 1930. ) One of the people who had worked with the analyser was John Mauchly, then an assistant professor at the Moore School.Mauchly was by this time well aware of what could be done with desk calculating machines and punched card equipment, although he was apparently unaware of the work Aiken was then doing on what became the Harvard Mark I, or of Babbage’s efforts 100 years earlier. He did however know of the work of Stibitz and had visited Iowa State in June 1941 in order to see Atanasoff’s special-purpose computer. Another person who worked on the Moore School differential analyser, and in fact made important improvements to it by replacing its mechanical amplifiers by partially electronic devices, was J. Presper Eckert, a research associate at the School.Eckert had met Mauchly in 1941, and it was their discussions about the possibility of surmounting the reliability problems of complex electronic devices that laid the groundwork for a memorandum that Mauchly wrote in August 1942. This proposed that an electronic digital computer be constructed for the purpose of solving numerical difference equations of the sort encountered in ballistics problems. Also at the Moore School, acting as a liaison officer for Colonel Paul N. Gillon of the office of the Chief of Ordnance, was Herman H. Goldstine, who before the war had been assistant professor of mathematics at the University of Michigan.In early 1943 Goldstine and Gillon became interested in the possibility of using an electronic calculating machine for the preparation of firing and bombing tables. By this time Mauchly’s 1942 memorandum had been mislaid, and it had to be recreated from his secretary’s notes. The second version of the memorandum, together with more detailed plans drawn up by Mauchly and Eckert, was included in a report dated April 1943 which formed the basis for a contract between the University of Pennsylvania and the US Government to develop an electronic computer.A large team was assembled at the Moore School in order to design and build the computer under the supervisi on of J. G. Brainerd, with Eckert as chief engineer and Mauchly as principal consultant. As the project progressed its aims broadened, so that the ENIAC, as it became known, turned out to be much more a general-purpose device than had been originally contemplated, and although programs were represented by plugged interconnecting wires, it provided full conditional branching facilities.It was an incredibly ambitious machine incorporating over 19 000 valves and consuming approximately 200 kilowatts of electric power! (The number of valves largely resulted from the use of them for high speed storage, and the choice of number representation, which can best be described as â€Å"unary-coded decimal. â€Å") The ENIAC incorporated 20 10-digit accumulators, which could be used for addition and subtraction, and for the temporary storage of numbers, a multiplier and a combination divider and square rooter.Addition took 200 microseconds, and multiplication of two 10-digit numbers approximat ely 3 milliseconds. Storage was provided for approximately 300 numerical constants in function tables, which could be set up by manual switches prior to commencing a computation. Input and output was via punched cards, using standard IBM devices. Early in its career the method of programming the machine was modified so that the program was represented by settings of the function tables without the need for changing the interconnecting cables.

The Effects Of Fast Food On Kids And Teens - 908 Words

Do we really know how fast food affects kids these days? In â€Å"Don’t Blame the Eater,† David Zinczenko discusses the effect of fast food on kids and teens. He states the issues from both personal experience and from factual situations in our society today. Zinczenko, from his personal experience, was able to get out of his bad eating habits. He suggests how others can do it if he was able to. These different situations give us insight on how Zinczenko expresses his credibility, facts, and emotional issues during his arguments. Ethos is established in this story in a form of personal experience. Zinczenko was in a situation where he was forced to diet on fast food. This caused him to have very poor eating habits which, in turn, caused his bad health. By explaining what led up to this lifestyle, credibility is established by letting the reader know that he went through the same thing. If this information was not present, some people may not be able to get the full eff ect from the arguments made in this story. Zinczenko’s use of ethos continues when he states, â€Å"I learned how to manage my diet† (17). This statement lets us know that the author has been through this type of situation. Readers will then come to realize that the author has the experience to justify his arguments. All aspects, including ethos, of a writer’s words impact the way readers interpret their work. Logos gives us factual evidence that allows readers to have something real to compare an argument to. In thisShow MoreRelatedTeen Obesity Essay1378 Words   |  6 Pages Teen Obesity Teen obesity is a major issue in the world that is rapidly increasing especially in the United States. It has now become one of the most serious health challenges of the 21st century according to unitypoint.org. In the last 3 decades, teen obesity has more than doubled in children and quadrupled among adolescents. Why you might ask. Well, children become overweight and obese for a variety of reasons. The most common causes are genetic factors, lack of physical activity, unhealthyRead MoreAmerican Teens Become Fit Again Case Study1745 Words   |  7 Pages American Teens Need To Become Fit Again The unhealthy generation, is in danger of being destroyed by obesity and other relative obesity diseases.Helping our human bodies to remain healthier and stay alive. Obesity is a dangerous diagnosis that can creep upon young teens who always seem to fling it off the shoulder and not take it serious. Obesity is what happens when humans dont eat the proper food, it causes problems that can’t fix. The 70’s was the big drop in society, parents started toRead MoreFast Food Nation By Eric Schlosser1678 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Congress should ban advertising that preys upon children, it should stop subsidizing dead-end jobs, it should pass tougher food safety laws, it should protect American workers from serious harm, it should fight against dangerous concentrations of economic power (Schlosser). People must wonder how is it that a fast food company has so much customers. Advertising is the answer. The power advertisers have to be able to influence so many people s decisi ons and affect people’s lives especially the livesRead MoreThe Effects Of Television Advertising On Food Choices Essay1434 Words   |  6 Pageshave a powerful, subconscious effect on food choices for both adults and children. Exposure to fast food ads seems to promote consumption of these foods. Clinical trials have been done looking at the effect of advertising and food choices. A number of studies have found that TV commercials for specific foods lead to an increase in the consumption of these foods before and after airing the commercials, Every day you are bombarded with literally lots of different food choices. Walk down your streetRead MoreChildhood Obesity: An Epidemic in the United States826 Words   |  3 Pagesadolescents are obese† states (Children and Teens, 1). Yes, one fourth of all children in the United States are obese, and inevitably this number will continue to rise. Obesity is one of the most obvious conditions to recognize, yet one of the most difficult to treat for quite a few reasons (Children and Teens, 1). Childhood obesity has been an epidemic in the United States for many years, but has recently skyrocketed, due to lack of exercise and unhealthy food choices among children in America. InRead MoreEssay on Parents ´ Negligence Leads to Child Obesity863 Words   |  4 Pagesmay have already noticed, child and teen obesity has become a greater problem in the United States. Could child and teen obesity be a reflection of a parent’s negligence? Many families don’t have time to cook nutritional meals, which causes many families to eat out nearly more than once a week. School cooked lunches aren’t exactly healthy either and many choices children make, parents don’t know about. Also, the media has a big impact on how child and teens eat. When children see commercials,Read MoreFast Foods Are Unhealthy for Teenagers Essay1713 Words   |  7 Pagescurrent and future health (Marlow). The decision to feast at fast food restaurants is an unhealthy preference which leads to a mixture of health problems. Teenagers desire instant gratification and quickly become overfed and under nourished at fast food restaurants. (Ram). â€Å"It’s e xtremely difficult to eat in a healthy way at a fast-food restaurant. Despite some of their recent healthful offerings, the menus still tend to include foods high in salt, sugar and calories and low in fiber and nutrientsRead MoreChildhood Obesity Research Paper1357 Words   |  6 PagesChildhood obesity in America is a growing disease that has become an epidemic that has lasting psychological effects because of advertisement of fast food, lack of physical activities, and parental control has made food become a major health issue in many adolescents lives today. The number of overweight and obese children in America has increased at an alarming rate over the past years. In the past 30 years, the occurrence of obesity in children has tripled and it is now estimated that one inRead MoreLasting Effect Of Marketing On Children Essay1623 Words   |  7 PagesLasting Effect of Marketing to Children In the past few decades, fast food companies has invested heavily in advertising to children and young adults, in return they’ll become the future of consumers of the next generation prolong business profits. Children between the ages 8 to 12 years old are exposed highest to fast food media marketing and those years are critical stages of development as this forms their eating habits for adulthood. Fast food corporations are utilizing all sources of outletRead MoreUnhealthy Fast Food Essay906 Words   |  4 Pagesnation ate healthier but knew less about nutrition. The foods that the teenagers consume today contributes to the increasing weight and decreasing health of the nation. Many outside factors determine the eating habits of teenagers today. When the baby boomer generation grew up a majority of the homes had mothers who worked in the home. The mother usually made sure that the meal prepared for dinner was balanced and healthy. Today many teens live in homes where both parents work. This means that

Quotes to Welcome Your Baby Boy

So you have a baby boy on the way? Congratulations! This new chapter in your life is sure to be an adventure full of joy and excitement (even if it also means changing diapers).  A baby boy is a unique bundle of joy. If youre expecting one of these small blessings, you may find some insight on how to handle boys in the baby-boy quotes below. Mark Twain: There comes a time in every rightly constructed boys life when he has a raging desire to go somewhere and dig for hidden treasure. Irish Proverb: It’s the merry-hearted boys that make the best men. Ralph Waldo Emerson: There was never a child so lovely but his mother was glad to get him to sleep. Paul Walker: If you spend any time with a man, you’ll realize that we’re all still little boys. Eric Berne: The moment a little boy is concerned with which is a jay and which is a sparrow, he can no longer see the birds or hear them sing. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: A boy’s will is the wind’s will, and the thoughts of youth are long, long thoughts. Jenny De Vries: A small son can charm himself into, and out of, most things. Charles Dickens: A boy’s story is the best that is ever told. Anonymous: What are little boys made of?Frogs and snails,And puppy dog tails,Thats what little boys are made of. Joseph Heller: When I grow up, I want to be a little boy. Maya Angelou: If I have a monument in this world, it is my son. Plato: Of all the animals, the boy is the most unmanageable. Alan Marshall Beck: Boys are found everywhere—on top of, underneath, inside of, climbing on, swinging from, running around, or jumping to. Mothers love them, little girls hate them, older sisters and brothers tolerate them, adults ignore them, and Heaven protects them. A boy is Truth with dirt on its face, Beauty with a cut on its finger, Wisdom with bubble gum in its hair, and the Hope of the future with a frog in its pocket. A boy is a magical creature—you can lock him out of your workshop, but you cant lock him out of your heart. You can get him out of your study, but you cant get him out of your mind. Might as well give up—he is your captor, your jailer, your  boss  and your master—a freckled-faced, pint-sized, cat-chasing bundle of noise. But when you come home at night with only the shattered pieces of your hopes and dreams, he can mend them like new with two magic words: Hi, Dad! James Thurber: Boys are beyond the range of anybodys sure understanding, at least when they are between the ages of 18 months and 90 years. Robert Baden-Powell: A boy is naturally full of humor. Christina Aguilera: There’s nothing more dangerous than a boy with charm. Johnny Depp: Young boys should never be sent to bed; they always wake up another day older. Cyril Connolly: Boys do not grow up gradually. They move forward in spurts like the hands of clocks in railway stations.

Global Warming Essay example - 699 Words

Global warming has many pro’s or people who believe global warming exists not because it is a good thing. People who believe global warming exists and want to fix the problem as soon as possible because it may cause a catastrophe. Al Gore and the IPCC are the main people who believe global warming may change our lives and sometimes create an illusion that it is our fault. There are many examples that it may be so like a hot summer in Edmonton, no negative temperature days in Glasgow, Montana however, other phenomenon like record snowfalls contradicts the existence of global warming. Even still many more occurrences that suggest global warming is real are: a 1998 heat wave in Florida, 1999 heat waves that set record highs, thawing†¦show more content†¦On the contrary others believe global warming is non-existent. They believe it is normal activity and the temperature will go back down sometime. As shown in Al Gore’s â€Å"hockey stick†, they may be exagge rating the truth. (See appendix 2) It also shows that the temperature was at its warmest in the 1000’s and from then up to just before now the temperature has decreased. In the last few years it has risen like it has many times before. Many of these people believe it is a scam or a hoax. One thing I found was on my list of evidence of global warming that some evidence was heavy rainfall but that doesn’t necessarily mean that the earth is warming. One example of the opposition to global warming is when one of my sources said: â€Å"Shame on you, Al Gore, for playing on peoples emotions to drive support for your enormous $45 trillion carbon tax hoax.† (I love C02). Many usually mild cities during winter were cooler than usual this year. A large amount of snow fell on D.C. and cancelled a meeting for global warming. Even still Al Gore still preaches that global warming exists and that we are at fault. When many of the world’s highest experienced scientists a nd others got together in New York to discuss global warming. Another thing found out about global warming is that it is about politics and money. The cap-and-trade would place a tax on things like driving automobiles and usingShow MoreRelatedGlobal Warming And The Warming1544 Words   |  7 PagesGlobal warming has become a well conversed topic among scientists and peoples in the world today. There are extremists who do everything possible to stop contributing to the warming, but the average person does little to alleviate the issue and in many cases refuses to acknowledge that there is a problem at all. Dating back to millions of years ago, even before humanity was born, the world has always experienced one form or another of warming; so the warming seen today is not as bizarre as many mayRead MoreGlobal Warming And The Warming1353 Words   |  6 PagesGlobal Warming With it being the presidential election season the talk of global warming, also known as climate change has come up in conversation more. But should it be associated with whether you are republican or democrat? Global warming should not be rather you â€Å"believe† in because it is a stated fact. The definition by Oxford Dictionary declares that global warming is a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth s atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect causedRead MoreThe Warming And Global Warming1442 Words   |  6 PagesThe Warming World Around Us The world is warming and we cannot deny it, the longer we deny the larger the problem it will become. Global warming is affecting the world economy, the overall health of the population, and most importantly the environment that surrounds us. Ignoring this problem will not just make it suddenly disappear; the world has to make an effort to stop it while it can still be maintained. Accepting the fact that it is happening is just the first step, the next step is takingRead MoreGlobal Warming1677 Words   |  7 PagesThrough the eyes of most scientists, global warming is seen as a very serious and severe threat. The actions taken by humans, such as industry and consumption of fossil fuels plus the increase in population and agriculture have played a big part in global warming. If something is not done soon the results could be very bad. By the middle of the twenty first century, there is evidence that the Earth will be warmer than it has been at any time in human history, and quite possibly since theRead MoreGlobal Warming1410 Words   |  6 PagesGlobal warming was first mentioned by ‘Svante August Arrhenius in 1896’, but in ‘1753, Joseph Black discovered carbon dioxide’ and in ‘1827, Jean-Batiste Fourier suggested that atmospheric effect kept the earth warmer than it would otherwise be’, (Direct.gov. n.d. A history of climate change). Since this time, reports, and study have be done with graphs to show the impact of global warming and what could happen to our planet. In 1979, the first conference was held this was called ‘International climateRead MoreGlobal Warming1245 Words   |  5 PagesGlobal Warming The major threat of today’s world is global warming. Due to various reasons global warming turns out to be a serious issue in the last few years. Today people believe in global warming while this concept was not so much believed and people interpreted in some other meanings what was happening in the past. Global warming is amplification in the temperature of earth because of industrial pollution, fossil fuels, and agricultural practices caused by human being, other and natural gasRead MoreGlobal Warming1316 Words   |  6 PagesControversy over Global Warming One of the largest argued topics in our world today is over global warming. People argue that is real, and others argue that it is fake. The effects of global warming create a growing danger for the ecosystem we live in by damaging glaciers and weather patterns. Humans contribute to global warming yet non-believers will think otherwise. Global warming is the greatest challenge facing our planet. According to the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change) mostRead Moreglobal warming1539 Words   |  7 Pagesof global climate over long periods of time. 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Global warming will make life harder for mostRead MoreGlobal Warming1192 Words   |  5 PagesGlobal Warming Essay Global warming is an important issue for humans to consider and science to figure out. Personally I don’t care very much about global warming and have never been active in green movements. The evidence presented in this class is very informative and useful when taking into account the numerous known and unknown causes and cures for global warming. However, my attitude towards global warming is unchanged. According to the Common Attitudes Toward Global Warming handout I think

Strategic Marketing Enhance the Existing Operations

Question: Discuss about the Strategic Marketing for Enhance the Existing Operations. Answer: Role of strategic marketing Strategic management help the organization to identify the relevant the strategies to enhance the existing operations of the business enterprise. According to Agudo et al (2012), it can be helpful in assessing the existing financial operations of the business enterprise and taking measures to rectify the situation. It can be said to be a combination of the financial and the non-financial operations of the business entity to execute the operational strategies of the entity. It defines the employee role that is consistent with the objectives and the goals of the organization. The total market solutions would enable the business organization to provide support to the organizational performance. Baker and Parkinson (2016) mentioned that the strategy of the organization have to be organized as per the goals and the objectives of the business entity. In this regard , it can be said that strategic management helps the organization in determining the discrepancies in the operational policies of the management and thereby taking appropriate measures. Strategic management plays an essential role in executing each aspect of the operational policies of the business like finance, HR and marketing to suit the operational policies of the business entity. According to Czinkota and Ronkainen (2012), strategic management has been a useful tool for the organization in the times of a business crisis. In this regard, it can be said that strategic management is a necessary tool that has been effective for the business entity in setting up of the operational policies in the case of a start-up business entity. Relationship between corporate strategy and marketing strategy There is a strong link between the corporate strategy and the marketing strategy of a business entity. The marketing strategy of an entity is based on the corporate strategy created. According to Dasgupta et al. (2015), the corporate policies of a business enterprise is the pillar that develops the path through which the organization runs. As such, it can be d said that the marketing policies of the organization is developed on the long term corporate strategies of the business enterprise. Thus, the potency of the marketing strategies is determined on the corporate strategy that is followed in the business entity. This is especially important in the case of the retail entities. The retail business enterprises in operates in a vulnerable market environment. Therefore, it is essential that a strong corporate strategy is developed to ensure survival in a competitive market environment. Gilligan and Hird (2012) stated that the promotional, price and the distribution strategies of the business entity is dependent on the nature of the corporate strategy created to address the existing issues of the entity and assists the business organization in its growth. Diamantopoulos et al. (2013) mentioned that the corporate strategy encompasses the operational, marketing as well as the financial strategies of a business entity. Therefore, it can be said that the marketing strategy is an essential part of the corporate strategy adopted by a business enterprise. The marketing strategies is also dependent on the existing market conditions developed by a business enterprise. In addition , the consumer tastes and the preferences are also considered while framing the marketing p olicies. East et al. (2013) mentioned that corporate strategy are developed after considering all these factors. Thus, the marketing policies of the business enterprise are dependent on the corporate strategy developed in the business organization. Marketing strategy analysis The following are the steps that are taken to develop the marketing strategy of an entity. 1. Market competition - The market competition is an essential factor that has an impact on the marketing policies adopted in the organization. Eng and Ozdemir (2014) mentioned that the presence of substitute products in the market shall raise the level of competition in the market. As such, it can be said that the nature of the market shall have a considerable influence on the marketing strategies adopted in the organization. 2. Financial strength- The financial strength of the organization have an essential impact on the marketing strategies of the organization. Gnizy and Shoham (2014) mentioned that elaborate sales promotional policies would not be possible if the inherent financial condition of the business organization. The business entity has been essential for the business entity in regard to the operational policies of the entity. This shall ensure that there are no wastage of the financial resource , thereby, leading the organization to incurr lossess 3. Consumer behavior - The consumer behavior of in any particular region would have a necessary influence on the marketing strategy According to Gilligan. and Hird, (2012) , the consumer behavior shall be of a considerable influence on the marketing policies of a place. Thus, the consumer behavior has to be adequately judge to appropriately structure the product and the service offerings offered to the consumers. 4. The existing trends in the market - The existing trends in the market shall reflect on the choices and the preferences of the consumers. Gnizy and Shoham (2014) stated that the marketing strategies have to adequately consider these factors to assist the organization in capturing the attention of the consumers in the market. 5. Consolidation - The business enterprise has to consolidate the existing position and address any issues that can harm the organization. Therefore, in the pursuit of adopting the expansion strategies the business organization the current market position of the organization would not be neglected under any circumstances. 6. Government laws and regulations - The government laws and regulations would have to be taken into account while determining the marketing policies of a business entity. According to Hardwick et al. (2014), the laws and the regulations offers the necessary guidelines through which the organization has to execute its marketing policies. The government laws and regulations defines the necessary measures as well as the ethical means that would enable a business entity to execute its marketing plans as per the needs. Internal environmental analysis The brand has the ability to determine the operational analysis to determine the existing business operations of the entity. According to Hollensen, (2015), the internal environmental analysis would assist the entity to assess the existing condition of the business entity and take measures accordingly. The internal environmental analysis would emphasize on business constituents like the existing operational and the financial policies of the business entity. In addition, the internal environmental analysis shall relate to the ability of the organization to sustain the market competition of the substitute brands in the market. The financial and the non-financial resources of the as per the needs of the organization. According to Katsikeas (2014), the internal environmental analysis would assist the entity in preparing an effective business plan to help the organization to achieve further growth. The internal environmental analysis would emphasize on every aspect of the business enterprise to enhance the operational policies of the business entity. External environmental analysis The external environmental analysis would analyse the external environmental attributes affecting the business organization. Majaro (2013) stated that the PESTLE Analysis would be of help to the business entity that shall be effective in evaluating the market environment the organization is operating. Political The political factors affecting the operational policies of a business entity would have an influence on the business environment that the organization is operating. The political attributes include the existing political situation of the place and the influence of the operating policies of the business enterprise. Economic There are certain economic attributes influencing the business sustainability of a place. In addition, the economic attributes include the purchasing power of the plac and the rise in the prices of the goods. The economic factors have also an essential influence on the operating and the financial strategies of the region. According to Schiffman et al. (2013), the economic attributes are the factors affecting the region of a place Social The social factors have an essential influence on the operating strategies of a business enterprise. The essential characteristics of the social environment mainly deal with the consumer behavior and buyer choices and preferences. According to Meissner (2012), the social attributes deals with the traditions and the culture of a place. In this regard, it can be said that these would have an impact on the business sustainability. The social obligations of the entity are also to be taken care of when forming the business policies. These relate to respecting the local culture and the traditions to facilitate company reputation and the goodwill of the organization. Technological- The technological innovations available shall have a large impact on the existing business functionalities of a place. According to Mihart (2012), this is an essential influence on the operations of a business entity and can lead the organization to growth. This would also help the organization to facilitate the growth. The region in which the organization is operating in shall have an essential influence on the operations of a place., Legal - The government laws and regulations affecting the operations of a place would have an impact on the business functionalities of the organization. The legal characteristics also include the import export procedures affecting the laws and the regulations of a place. In this regard , Mihart (2012) noted that these regulations have to adhered to create fair and transparent business policies. The legal characteristics of the place have been effective in maintaining a strict guideline towards the operational expenditures of the business entity, Environment-- The business entity have to follow the local laws and regulations relating to the protection of the environment. As such Newton and Meyer (2013). noted that the protection of the environment should be the primary concern of the employees. The environment laws should have an essential impact on the business policies of an organization. In this regard, Newton and Meyer (2013) said that this is the environment protection laws have been a primary concern among the reputed entities. The environmental laws in a particular region have been able to restrict the operational policies towards maintaining a healthy environment, Integration of internal and external analysis The internagies of the m organization. The internal and the external operations have been an essential factor in order to determine the existing business policies of the organization. Papadopoulos and Heslop (2014) mentioned that there exists an essential link between the internal and the external operations of the business entity. Thus , the internal and the external analysis of the business enterprise pertinent marketing policies shall be developed which would assist the business entity to gain a larger market share. Pearce (2016) stated that the internal and the external analysis have develop a strong relationship to facilitate the operational policies of the business entity. The TMS have used the internal and the external analysis to aid the business enterprise in achieving further growth. Paliwoda and Thomas (2013) mentioned the integration of the internal and the external market analysis shall assist the business entity in developing the marketing and the operational analysis Strategies implemented The following are the strategies that can be implemented that can contribute to the business competition. 1. Nature of the product and the service The nature of the product and the service line is a large determinant on the marketing strategy adopted in the business organization. In this regard, Saleh et al. (2014) noted that the nature of the product and service line would determine the kind of marketing strategy adopted in the business entity. The Total Marketing solutions would be used to develop the operational strategies of the business enterprise, thereby, leading the organization to attain further growth. 2. Pricing strategy - The TMS would be used to determine the epricing strategy of the organization. Thus, this would assist the organization in developing newer market segments and attracting potential customers towards the brand. According to Prybutok, (2012), the pricing policies have been essential in ensuring survivability in a competitive market environment. The pricing policies have been effective in assessing the current business policies of the organization and rectification of the existing issues in the business organization. In these regard, the pricing policies have enabled the business entity. 3. Identifying the target segment of customers - It is important to identify the target segment of customers that would enable the business organization to preparer the business plan of the organization. Newton and Meyer (2013) mentioned that The Total Marketing Solutions would assist the business organization in order to build the business sustainability of the organization. Therefore, it shall enable the business entity to build prosperity and growth. 4. Consumer choices and preferences - The consumer choices as well as the preferences shall be analyzed in determining the consumer choices and the preferences of the consumer. In addition, understanding the consumer choices and the preferences of the consumers would assist the business entity in developing the long term goals and objectives of the business entity. According to Ramsay et al.( 2013), consumer behavior would have a large influence on the operational and the marketing policies of the business entity. 5. The presence of substitute products The presence of substitute products in the market shall complicate the market situation of the business enterprise. In addition, this would intensify the market competition, which would pose a threat to the business sustainability of the entity. Therefore, pertinent marketing and operational strategies should be framed to overcome the required threats from the substitute products in the market. According to Rao (2015), for a start-up business entity the primary objective is market survivability. As such, it is necessary that the TMS make effective strategies for the growth of the organization. Thus, it is essential that the marketing strategies are effective in setting up of the business entity in leading the business enterprise to prosperity. Market Communication strategies The market communication strategy primarily deals in developing the brand identity of a business enterprise. As such, it is essential that the marketing strategies have been essential to develop the brand awareness of a brand. According to Saleh et al. (2014), the marketing communication strategy is used in capturing the attention of the public. The following are the characteristics of the market communication strategies. The marketing communication strategies help the smoother flow of communication from the top management of the organization to the middle ranked managers of the organization. (Rao 2015). Components - The marketing communication strategy is developed through the various market components. Weinstein and Pohlman (2015) stated that advertising is used in raising the awareness levels of the business organization. In addition, it is used in the development of the marketing channels in the organization. Strategies The employee policies has been used in the development of market communication strategies. Paliwoda and Thomas (2013) mentioned that the strategies are developed in five different strategies to encompass each aspect of the business functionalities. The company goodwill as well as the operational strategies of the business entity. In this regard, it can be said that the market communication strategies would emphasize on each aspect of the production and the distribution process in the organization., Benefits- There are certain benefits to the implementation of the market communication strategies adopted in the business entity. As such , Turnbull and Valla (2013) stated that it is necessary that such factors in the manufacturing process in the organization shall assist a business entity to assess the existing performance of the entity and take measures accordingly. The market communication policies have to be adopted in the business entity to aid t the business enterprise in addressing the issues that has been hampering the business enterprise. According to Schiffman et al. (2013), the market communication strategies shall have the necessary constituents to cover each aspect of the business entity. The market communication strategies have to be adopted to assist the business enterprise, in executing the operational strategies of the business entity. Prybutok (2012) mentioned that the marketing communication strategies have been adopted in the organization Adoption of Marketing Strategies There are certain considerations through which the market communication strategies has to be implemented in the organization. These include the existing market condition as well as the consumer behavior in the organization. In addition, the considerations are the inherent financial strength of the organization. Besides this, there are several other factors that includes the market competition and the presence of substitute products in the market. According to Solomon et al. (2013), several considerations cater to the operational policies of the business enterprise. In this regard, it can be said that the primary consideration is the need of the organization. There can be several issues that can be considered in implementing in the organization. According to Spurling et al. (2013), the adoption of the resource and the management implications in the business entity that would assist the business in allocating the resources as per the needs of the organization. The marketing strategies implemented in the business entity shall be considered after analyzing the financial and the non-financial resources in the entity. In addition , the pertinent issues that has been affecting the organization shall be overcome through the implementation of the marketing policies in any business organization. The management of the organization has to play a leading role in the implementation of the marketing strategies in the organization. According to Turnbull and Paliwoda (2013), the leadership role has to guide the employees to facilitate the growth of the business organization. The management communication strategies has to be implemented after considering attributes like the technology implemented in the organization and the usefulness of the human resource policies implemented in the business entity. Besides this, it is necessary that the marketing strategies adopted in the organization should ensure that there are no adequate wastage of resources. The resource and the management implications have to be adequately implemented with considerable time and effort to help the business entity in its growth. References Agudo, J.C., Crespo, A.H. and Bosque, I.R., 2012. Adherence to customer loyalty programs and changes in buyer behaviour. The Service Industries Journal, 32(8), pp.1323-134. Baker, M.J. and Parkinson, S.T., 2016. Organizational buying behaviour: purchasing and marketing management implications. Springer. Czinkota, M. and Ronkainen, I., 2012. International marketing. Cengage Learning. Dasgupta, P., Southerton, D., Ulph, A. and Ulph, D., 2015. Consumer Behaviour with Environmental and Social Externalities: Implications for Analysis and Policy. Environmental and Resource Economics, pp.1-36. Diamantopoulos, A., Fritz, W. and Hildebrandt, L. eds., 2013. Quantitative Marketing and Marketing Management: Marketing Models and Methods in Theory and Practice. Springer Science Business Media. East, R., Wright, M. and Vanhuele, M., 2013. Consumer behaviour: applications in marketing. Sage. Eng, T.Y. and Ozdemir, S., 2014. International RD partnerships and intrafirm RDmarketingproduction integration of manufacturing firms in emerging economies. Industrial Marketing Management, 43(1), pp.32-44. Gilligan, C. and Hird, M., 2012. International marketing: strategy and management (Vol. 17). Routledge. Gnizy, I. and Shoham, A., 2014. Uncovering the influence of the international marketing function in international firms. International Marketing Review, 31(1), pp.51-78. Hardwick, J., Delarue, L., Ardley, B. and Taylor, N., 2014. Mobile phones purchases and consumer decision making process: the role of Facebook online advertising. Computer-Mediated Marketing Strategies: Social Media and Online Brand Communities: Social Media and Online Brand Communities, p.303. Hollensen, S., 2015. Marketing management: A relationship approach. Pearson Education. Katsikeas, C.S., 2014. Journal of International Marketing: Objectives, Challenges, and the Way Forward. Journal of International Marketing, 22(1), pp.1-4. Majaro, S., 2013. International Marketing (RLE International Business): A Strategic Approach to World Markets. Routledge. Meissner, H.G., 2012. Strategic international marketing. Springer Science Business Media. Mihart, C., 2012. Impact of integrated marketing communication on consumer behaviour: Effects on consumer decision-making process.International Journal of Marketing Studies, 4(2), p.121. Mihart, C., 2012. Impact of integrated marketing communication on consumer behaviour: Effects on consumer decision-making process.International Journal of Marketing Studies, 4(2), p.121. Newton, P. and Meyer, D., 2013. Exploring the attitudes-action gap in household resource consumption: Does environmental lifestyle segmentation align with consumer behaviour?. Sustainability, 5(3), pp.1211-1233. Paliwoda, S. and Thomas, M., 2013. International marketing. Routledge. Papadopoulos, N. and Heslop, L.A., 2014. Product-country images: Impact and role in international marketing. Routledge. Pearce, P.L., 2016. Trends in Consumer Behaviour. Entrepreneurship und Tourismus: Unternehmerisches Denken und Erfolgskonzepte aus der Praxis, p.2251. Prybutok, V.R., 2012. The impact of quality on customer behavioral intentions based on the consumer decision making process as applied in e-commerce (Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas). Ramsay, J., Wagner, B. and Kelly, S., 2013. Purchase offering quality: The effects of buyer behaviour on organizational supplying behaviour.International Journal of Operations Production Management, 33(10), pp.1260-1282. Rao, A.V., 2015. Consumer behaviour towards organized retail. Saleh, M.A., Ali, M.Y. and Julian, C.C., 2014. International buyer behaviourcommitment relationship: An investigation of the empirical link in importing.International Business Review, 23(2), pp.329-342. Schiffman, L., O'Cass, A., Paladino, A. and Carlson, J., 2013. Consumer behaviour. Pearson Higher Education AU. Solomon, M.R., Russell-Bennett, R. and Previte, J., 2013. Consumer behaviour: Buying, having, being. Pearson Australia. Spurling, N., McMeekin, A., Shove, E., Southerton, D. and Welch, D., 2013. Interventions in practice: re-framing policy approaches to consumer behaviour. Manchester: Sustainable Practices Research Group. Turnbull, P.W. and Paliwoda, S.J., 2013. Research in international marketing(Vol. 39). Routledge. Turnbull, P.W. and Valla, J.P. eds., 2013. Strategies for international industrial marketing. Routledge. Weinstein, A. and Pohlman, R.A., 2015. Customer value: A new paradigm for marketing management. In Proceedings of the 1997 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) Annual Conference (pp. 132-133). Springer International Publishing.

Summary and Critique of “Disobedience as a Psychological and Moral Problem” Example For Students

Summary and Critique of â€Å"Disobedience as a Psychological and Moral Problem† Summary and Critique of â€Å"Disobedience as a Psychological and Moral Problem† by Erich Fromm In â€Å"Disobedience as a Psychological and Moral Problem† by Erich Fromm, Fromm states that human history was started by an act of disobedience, and that it will be ended by an act of obedience. He then says that the majority of human authorities and governments throughout history have demonized disobedience while sanctifying obedience, as their power comes from the obedience of the masses and that only obedience bred as a virtue can be sustained by such organizations. He states that the obedience of the masses and the power gained from it are what allow the governing few to enjoy the limited quantities of luxuries and other resources available only to those with power and the means to use it. He also states that the human conscience is divided into 2 types: the humanistic conscience, which instinctively knows which actions and things are human and which are inhuman, and the authoritarian conscience, which encourages us to follow the rules and behaviors taught to us by society and those in power. We will write a custom essay on Summary and Critique of â€Å"Disobedience as a Psychological and Moral Problem† specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now When Fromm states that human history was started by disobedience, he argues that this is shown by the Bible’s traditional Adam and Eve story, wherein their disobedience gets them forced out of the Garden paradise and into the cruel reality of the world as we know it. In this, he fails to account for the bias of the Church itself in the story; the story of Adam and Eve is supposed to engender obedience towards ‘God’, and more importantly, at least in the eyes of the Bible’s authors, the Church. As such, disobedience will of course be punished; however human history has shown that obedience has caused far more damage to paradises and societies themselves than disobedience, leading me to think that the start of history was probably an act of obedience leading to the proverbial Garden’s destruction and mankind’s eviction from the ruins, rather than any act of disobedience. Then, Fromm posits that the human conscience is separated into 2: the human and the authoritarian conscience, with the former containing behaviors and rules that are considered ‘human’ while the latter contains the rules and behaviors taught to us by the authorities that govern our society. This is a flawed view simply because such a division would require that both sets of rules and behaviors be fairly exclusive, meaning that what is taught to us by society and its authorities would be considered mostly ‘non-human’ on a ase level by a preexisting set of behaviors, yet humans are by nature social creatures that have been shown to learn most of our basic behaviors and rules from society itself, being born without any real set of predetermined behaviors such as those found in many other animals. As such, there can be no division of the conscience between the behaviors learned from society and a set of instinctive behaviors considered ‘human’ becau se such a set does not exist. Then, Fromm says that authorities must instill obedience among the masses by appearing ‘all-knowing’ or omnipotent and infallible in some way, or lose their power in the long term. However, modern governments would not work if this were true, especially the U. S. Federal Government; we question Congress and the President constantly, yet they still maintain their overall power in our society, regardless of how effective they are in actually using that power. For example, look at the recent government shutdown: the members of Congress managed to get poll averages to 80% against their actions by the time they got their act together and restarted the government, and yet they still maintain their power even after that little fiasco. .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163 , .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163 .postImageUrl , .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163 , .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163:hover , .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163:visited , .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163:active { border:0!important; } .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163:active , .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163 .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf2d166947a6d9ab3bbb4a9033ff09163:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Tarzan EssayIf an appearance of infallibility was necessary to maintain obedience and thus power, then we wouldn’t have the current system at all in fact; Congress would have lost their collective power after Vietnam, when the general population lost most of their faith in the Federal government, as they also stopped obeying Congress in many ways after that due to their mistrust. Because of this, I believe that infallibility and the appearance of omniscience is not necessary for maintaining obedience, and thereby maintaining power, over the long-term. The exception to this is that if the masses the authorities govern are uneducated, and thus unable to make informed decisions due to a lack of education and worldly awareness, then omniscience and infallibility, or at least the illusions of such, must be maintained to continue to hold power over the long term. Fromm, Erich. Disobedience as a Psychological and Moral Problem.   Writing and Reading Across the Curriculum. (2013): 621-626. Print.